Law of Contract Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Law of Contract - Essay Example It is common for one party to make statements during the course of negotiations for a contract with the object and perhaps the effect of inducing the other party to enter into a contract. Where a contract of sale has been reduced to writing, assurances which were given by the seller as to his land or his goods, as the case may be, will probably be held not to form part of the contract if they are not referred to in the document. A statement of fact that is false will be actionable as a misrepresentation where the misrepresented intends it to be acted on and where it is reasonably relied on by the misrepresentee. The issue of misrepresentation can be traced from 1881 in Redgrave v Hurd[1881] 20 Ch.D.1, in which the plaintiff, a solicitor, inserted in the Law Times an advertisement offering to â€Å"take as partner an efficient lawyer and advocate, about forty, who would not object to purchase advertiser’s suburban residence†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The defendant replied to the advertisement, and had two interviews with the plaintiff, at which, as Fry J found, the plaintiff had represented that his business was bringing in either about  £300 a year, or from  £300 to  £400 a year. At a third interview, the plaintiff produced summaries of business done in 1877, 1878 and 1879. The summaries showed gross receipts not quite amounting to  £200 a year.

Laser Tissue Interaction

Laser Tissue Interaction Laser-Tissue interaction Like normal light, laser light can interact with tissue in four basic ways1 as follows: (1) Reflection: some light reflects back off the surface, its energy neither penetrating nor interacting with tissue. (2) Transmission: some (light) may be transmitted through tissue, albeit unchanged as if transparent to the laser beam and without interaction between the incident beam and the tissue. (3) Scatter: some light may penetrate the tissue and be scattered without causing a noticeable effect on the tissue2 .Scattering causes some lessening of light energy with distance, together with distortion in the beam, whereby rays proceed in an uncontrolled direction through the medium. Moreover, back-scatter can occur as the laser beam hits the tissue, most commonly in short wavelengths, e.g. diode, Nd:YAG (≠¥50% back-scatter). (4) Absorption: some light may be absorbed into a component of the tissue, whereby there will be transference of energy to the tissue, i.e. the incident energy of the beam is attenuated by the medium and transferred into another form. In clinical dentistry, depending on the value of the energy, there is conversion into heat or, in the case of very low values, photobiostimulation of receptor tissue sites (e.g. sun-bathing the stimulation of ‘tanning melanocytes by low-grade UV sunlight versus the damaging sun-burn with higher exposure values) Laser wavelength absorption and tissue composition Laser tissue interactions, as described above, are not exclusive and occur in varying proportions within tissues depending on the chemical and or molecular variation found within such complex biological systems. The degree of interaction is usually proportional to the level of absorption of a particular wavelength by tissue. Tissue elements that absorb a particular wavelength or spectrum of light energy to a high degree are called chromophores. All (organic) matter has the property of ‘absorption specificity which determines how it reacts to incident radiation. Indeed, the preferential absorption of specific wavelengths of radiant energy by chromophores within tissues accounts for the unique interactions that occur between the monochromatic light energy of lasers and various tissue elements. Laser wavelengths thus affect certain, inter-related components of the target tissue, that is: its water content; colour; and chemical composition. In dentistry, oral tissue comprises one o r more chromophores haemoglobin, melanin and allied pigmented proteins, (carbonated) hydroxyapatite, and water. Generally speaking, any predominantly pigmented tissue absorbs shorter laser wavelengths (i.e. visible and near infra-red), whereas non-pigmented tissue absorbs longer wavelengths. Consequently, absorption peaks of water and (carbonated) hydroxyapatite, coincident with Er:YAG, Er:YSGG and CO2 wavelengths, would support the potentially advantageous use of these lasers in hard tissue management. Moreover, oral soft tissues mainly comprise water, which predominantly controls the tissue effects of laser emissions within the infrared spectrum, such as CO2. Therefore, CO2 laser energy is absorbed very efficiently by tissue fluids with minimal penetration beyond the surface2. Conversely, water is comparatively transparent to the emission of the Nd:YAG laser, which accounts for its tendency to penetrate deeper into tissue. In this way, whereas CO2 wavelength might penetrate oral epithelia to a depth of 0.1-0.2 mm, Nd: YAG and diode wavelengths can result in an equivalent-power penetration of 4-6 mm.3 Light Absorption in Tissue Absorption characteristics for various wavelengths in four absorption media (oxyhaemoglobin, melanin, hydroxyapatite and water). The absorption coefficient is plotted as a function of the wavelength, and the absorption coefficient for a given material is plotted on this graph. A high absorption coefficient means the given laser wavelength is well absorbed in the selected medium. A low absorption corresponds with a greater degree of transparency allowing the light to penetrate deeper into the medium. Note that the vertical scale is logarithmic; that is, each grid line is equivalent to a change of the absorption coefficient by 1 order of magnitude (factor 10). Photobiological Effect The overriding beneficial effect of laser energy is absorption of the light by the target tissue and the transfer of laser energy, thus causing a tissue interaction (Photobiological Effect). There are four basic interactions that can occur following absorption of laser energy: (1) Photochemical (Photochemolysis): certain wavelengths of laser light are absorbed by naturally occurring chromophores or wavelength- specific light absorbing substances that are able to induce certain biochemical reactions at cellular level. Derivatives of naturally occurring chromophores or dyes have been used as photosensitizers to induce biological reactions within tissues for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Photochemical interactions include photobiostimulation, photodynamic therapy, and tissue fluorescence. Certain biological pigments, upon absorbing laser light, can fluoresce, which can be used for detecting teeth caries. Lasers can also be used in a non- surgical mode for biostimulation or more rapid wound healing, pain relief, increased collagen growth and a general anti- inflammatory effect. Photodynamic interaction is demonstrated by PAD (Photo-Activated Disinfection) in which a 635nm laser used to activate a dye solution of tolonium chloride placed in a ca rious cavity or root canal. Activation of the tolonium chloride releases oxygen species which disrupt the membranes of micro-organisms found in caries, periodontal pockets and root canals. (2) Photothermal (Photothermolysis): light energy absorbed by the tissues is transformed into heat energy which then produces tissue effects as follows: Coagulation and haemostasis: from 60oC to 70oC, this is the secondary effects through conduction of the heat generated. Photopyrolysis: from 65oC to 90oC, target tissue proteins undergo permanent morphological change (protein denaturation) as result of dissociation of covalent bonds. Photovaporolysis: at 100oC +, inter- and intra-cellular water in soft tissue and interstitial water in hard tissue is vaporised. This destructive phase transfer results in expansive volume change, which can aid the ablative effect of the laser by dissociating large tissue elements. This will be carried onto a further phase: transfer to hydrocarbon gases and production of residual carbon (carbonization).4 The amount of laser energy absorbed by the tissue largely determines the thermal interaction produced and is in turn dependant on the wavelength of the laser light to a great degree, but also on other parameters such as spot size, power density, pulse duration and frequency, and the optical properties and composition of the tissue irradiated. The CO2 (10600nm) is highly absorbed by the water content of oral soft tissues, whereby 90% of the energy is absorbed within the first 100 microns of penetrating the tissue surface5. Hence, even at relatively low power densities using a focused beam, there is rapid tissue vaporization of the water with charring and burning of the organic content of the tissue. Photothermal interaction causes the irradiated target tissue to absorb the laser energy and converts it into heat, thereby producing a direct temperature rise in the irradiated tissue volume. When this energy is applied for long enough, heat conduction will cause a temperature rise in surrounding tissues as well. Hence, thermal effects, such as coagulation necrosis, are produced indirectly in collateral areas and are one of the mechanisms responsible for haemostasis when cutting or vaporizing with a laser. (3) Thermal relaxation Heat dissipation or diffusion from the irradiated tissue site will determine the extent of collateral damage seen and is largely dependant on the thermal conductivity of the tissue. The time required for diffusion of the heat or ‘thermal relaxation time is defined as the time required for the accumulated heat energy within the tissue mass to cool to 37% of its original value6. The degree of heat conduction and rate of tissue cooling both determine the extent of collateral tissue damage for a given wavelength of laser light and tissue type. The composition of the tissue in terms of its structure, water content and vascularity will greatly determine heat conduction/tissue cooling and therefore collateral damage. Moreover, factors such as the volume and surface area of tissue irradiated will also influence the rate of heat dissipation. With continuous laser emission there is no thermal relaxation time, but with pulsed emissions there are brief periods of time allowing for heat dissipation or cooling between pulses7. Tissues should be allowed a period of cooling approximately three times their thermal relaxation time to avoid accumulation of heat energy in surrounding tissue and therefore collateral damage. This can be managed effectively using a combination of appropriate power density and pulse duration for the desired procedure8, 9. Factors that influence thermal relaxation are summarized as follows: Laser absorption characteristics of the target tissue Laser emission mode : continuous wave or pulsed emission Laser incident power Laser power density Beam movement: relative to tissue site; rapid laser beam movement will reduce heat build-up and aid thermal relaxation. Endogenous coolant: water content and vascularity of the tissue. Exogenous coolant: water, air, pre-cooling of tissue.10, 11 (4) Photomechanical and photoelectrical: These are non- thermal interactions produced by high energy, short pulsed laser light, including: photodisruption, photodisassociation, photoplasmolysis and photoacoustic interaction. Absorption of laser energy pulses results in rapid expansion or generation of shock waves that are capable of rupturing intermolecular and atomic bonds (photo-disruption or photodisassociation ). Thus, the laser beams energy is transformed into vibration or kinetic energy. A pulse of laser energy on hard dentinal tissues can produce a shock wave, which might explode or pulverize the tissue, creating an abraded crater. This is an example of the photoacoustic effect of laserlight.12 Photoplasmolysis is a process of tissue removal through the formation of electrically charged ions and particles that exist in‘plasma state, a semi-gaseous, high -energy state which is neither solid, liquid, or gas.13 This process is observed in ultra-short pulsed lasers, e.g. Nd: YAG, Er:YAG, with pulse widths of

The Root of the Narcotics Problem in the United States :: essays research papers

THE ROOT OF THE NARCOTICS PROBLEM IN THE UNITED STATES The United States is suffering from an epidemic caused by the use of drugs. The majority of criminals in the prison system are convicted on drug charges, and the majority of the population has been exposed to at least one type of illegal substance. The main problem that the United States faces in the War on Drugs is the lack of education to the citizens on the dangers that the drug trade poses to the individual and the mass population.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The American child is bombarded by scenes on the television that depict the glamour of the drug world; the way that drugs make people feel good and the easy money that can be made are only a couple of examples that are presented on television. The movie and television industry make millions of dollars every year with episodes of drug lords that are victims of law enforcement and are many times made out to be the â€Å"good guy†. This type of open media, which may seem harmless to an adult, gives the child the opinion that drugs are all right.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Without proper instruction beginning at the earliest of ages, the child grows up thinking that drugs are harmless and this increases the risk of curiosity. The Department of Education mandates classes on math, reading, and science but there is no set curriculum to teach the American child about the dangers of drugs. In order to best arm children about the drug problem that will be faced in the near future, there needs to be a set standard for all students to learn about drugs and the damage that is produced from the use of the illegal substances.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The damages that drugs cause does not just stop at the individual and more often than not, the users are actually responsible for greater criminal offenses. The person that is using drugs, even if only social or experimental, is supporting a crime spree that is taking away the life of the â€Å"American Dream†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The American child will grow up and move into adulthood keeping the same idea that drugs are harmless, and this is why the drug world is tolerated and sometimes overlooked by the common citizen. Given enough education about the real dangers of the drug activity, the average American will make correct choices about the illegal activities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On September 11 many American citizens were outraged and wanted to know what could be done about the War on Terrorism. The Root of the Narcotics Problem in the United States :: essays research papers THE ROOT OF THE NARCOTICS PROBLEM IN THE UNITED STATES The United States is suffering from an epidemic caused by the use of drugs. The majority of criminals in the prison system are convicted on drug charges, and the majority of the population has been exposed to at least one type of illegal substance. The main problem that the United States faces in the War on Drugs is the lack of education to the citizens on the dangers that the drug trade poses to the individual and the mass population.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The American child is bombarded by scenes on the television that depict the glamour of the drug world; the way that drugs make people feel good and the easy money that can be made are only a couple of examples that are presented on television. The movie and television industry make millions of dollars every year with episodes of drug lords that are victims of law enforcement and are many times made out to be the â€Å"good guy†. This type of open media, which may seem harmless to an adult, gives the child the opinion that drugs are all right.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Without proper instruction beginning at the earliest of ages, the child grows up thinking that drugs are harmless and this increases the risk of curiosity. The Department of Education mandates classes on math, reading, and science but there is no set curriculum to teach the American child about the dangers of drugs. In order to best arm children about the drug problem that will be faced in the near future, there needs to be a set standard for all students to learn about drugs and the damage that is produced from the use of the illegal substances.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The damages that drugs cause does not just stop at the individual and more often than not, the users are actually responsible for greater criminal offenses. The person that is using drugs, even if only social or experimental, is supporting a crime spree that is taking away the life of the â€Å"American Dream†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The American child will grow up and move into adulthood keeping the same idea that drugs are harmless, and this is why the drug world is tolerated and sometimes overlooked by the common citizen. Given enough education about the real dangers of the drug activity, the average American will make correct choices about the illegal activities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On September 11 many American citizens were outraged and wanted to know what could be done about the War on Terrorism.

Marketing (Repositioning) Essay

There is a wide range of forces acting upon organizations which make the need for service repositioning inevitable. The main forces include changing technology and expectations of customers, increased competition and changing nature of economic relations, etc. Today, repositioning of existing service offering becomes a strategy which helps companies to sustain strong market position and resist competition. Following Lovelock and Wirtz (2003) repositioning can be described as changing service characteristics aimed to meet new market conditions. The main sets of conditions for service repositioning include (1) a market decline, (2) competition and (3) changing customers’ needs. Therefore, reposition ­ing is about the new vision of the company in the customers’ minds. It is about earning customers’ trust to make them willingly follow the company. Market decline is the main reason which forces companies to reposition their service offering to remain profitable. For instance, if rates of return are below â€Å"competitive† rate it can result in withdrawal from the industry and a decline in activity and competition. In this situation, companies need to reposition their service offering in order to find new markets and new target groups. Repositioning is the best strategy used by companies to enter new markets essential for the opportunities and new competitive positioning. For instance, in order to survive â€Å"Fast Company† created a strategy aimed to reposition the magazine â€Å"in the minds of advertisers—a task that depends on first repositioning in the minds of readers—and then executing† (Lindsay, 2005). Airline carriers use repositioning strategy to avoid market failure and decline. (Essential repositioning of the Airline. Luxair, n.d.; Europe’s Winners and Losers, 2001). Also, this industry repositions itself in order to maintain high growth through optimization of a product mix and technological innovation. Very often, companies reposition their service offering using a quality/price strategy. Some airline carriers have positioned their brands selling for twice the price of services emphasizing their national origins, demon ­strating how quality and price can be reinforced (Essential repositioning of the Airline. Luxair, n.d.). It is possible to say that airline carriers seek to change the experience of buying and using a service (the service benefit) to prove a price position (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2003). Increased competition and new market entrants can force companies to reposition their service offerings. On the one hand, new entrants to an industry bring new capacity, a desire to gain market share and position and new approaches to serving customer needs. It is important to note that new competitors can have a negative impact on prices. Their strategy can result in reduced industry profitability (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2003). In this case, repositioning their service offering, companies try to find new service benefits to attract potential consumers. For instance, tourism market in Jamaica needs a reposition in order to compete on the market and remain competitive. Golding, a leader of Jamaica Labour Party, says that the industry is â€Å"running a risk right now because there is significant increase in the number of rooms, particularly with the Spanish investments† (Reposition tourism marketing, 2006). Also, Golding admits that â€Å"There is a need for a whole new approach to attraction development because there are so little offerings for the tourists, particularly at nights† (Reposition tourism marketing, 2006). On the other hand, multinational companies like Vodafone mobile operator can face a threat of service adaptation and can become a victim of global competitors (Calling for a rethink, 2006). In some cases, the companies need repositioning strategy to relocate the brand in consumers’ minds creating a competitive advantage.   This repositioning strategy ensures the customers credibly (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2003). Repositioning helps companies to establish trustworthiness, confidence, and competence for customers. It is possible to say that reposi ­tioning becomes the best strategy to keep the company’s identity and per ­sonality in the customers’ minds. The company can force customers to buy their products creating new image of the brand. In the era of globalization, repositioning strategy can help to differentiate the brand image from competitors proposing distinct features of the service offering. So, reposi ­tioning is not just about persuading and creating new image in the consumers’ minds, it is about earning consumers’ trust (Calling for a rethink, 2006). Another set of conditions under which it is appropriate to reposition an existing service offerings deals with future needs and wants of the customers and their changing expectations. Customers needs and wants have changed over time. These causes require companies to find new strategies and directions to deliver customer satisfaction. For instance, the main problems faced by WHO is that â€Å"Like many middle-aged organizations, a lot of the WHO’s problems stem from the fact that it has not changed with the times† (Repositioning the WHO, 1998). In this case, repositioning is needed to provide satisfaction of members’ social needs, and a sense of personal identity. Also, WHO organizations â€Å"regard government action as automatically good, profit as automatically evil, and intellectual property as theft† (Repositioning the WHO, 1998). Advances in technology and innovations require new positioning strategies to attract potential customers around the world. In this situation, repositioning becomes a response to the need of customers and increased market competition. It is possible to conclude that managing repositioning effectively is a complex and challenging task. Although firms need to meet expectations of their customers and resist competitors in order to remain profitable. For many organizations, repositioning is measured as profits in one form or another, while for others they may be the achievement of social needs. Today, repositioning strategy is one of the most important elements of marketing which helps companies to respond effectively to changing demands and new economic environment. References Calling for a rethink. 2006. The Economist. http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5444969 (accessed 19 August 2006) Essential repositioning of the Airline. Luxair. n.d.   http://www.luxair.lu/luxair/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=642&a=6662&l=en (accessed 19 August 2006). Europe’s Winners and Losers. The Continent’s slump will change the landscape. 2001. Business Week. October 15.   http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_42/b3753136.htm (accessed 19 August 2006) Lindsay, J. 2005. Super Service: How to Revive The Business Publication You Just Bought for ~$35 Million. June 26.   http://www.mediabistro.com/articles/cache/a4669.asp (accessed 19 August 2006) Lovelock, Ch., Wirtz, J. 2003. Services Marketing, People, Technology, Strategy. Prentice Hall; 5 ed. Reposition tourism marketing, says Golding. 2006. August 15. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/html/20060812T210000-0500_111077_OBS_REPOSITION_TOURISM_MARKETING__SAYS_GOLDING_.asp (accessed 19 August 2006) Repositioning the WHO. 1998. The Economist. http://www.economist.com/research/backgrounders/displaystory.cfm?story_id=127783 (accessed 19 August 2006)   

How Old World Diseases Destroyed Indian America Essay

The Invisible Enemy – How Old World diseases destroyed Indian America and created Colonial America. In the years prior to the Pilgrims establishing Plymouth colony in 1620, the area had been ravaged by an epidemic of disease which had wiped out the original Indian inhabitants. The Pilgrims believed that God had sent the disease among the Indians to clear the site for his ‘chosen people’. This is but one example of how the introduction of disease would forever change the existing Indian America into a ‘new’ America the Natives would barely recognize and would face an everlasting struggle to be part of. The impact of Old World diseases is one of the most critical aspects to understanding the history of Native American Indians. Old World pathogens were carried by the Europeans into the ‘virgin soil’ of Indian America would forever change the very existence of the Native Americans. Epidemics of killer disease were to rampage through Indian society and the Indians being immunologically defenseless succumbed in their thousands. Smallpox was the most devastating of the early killer diseases, followed by deadly strains of typhus and measles (Thornton 1987:44-45). These were followed by bubonic plague, diphtheria, cholera, scarlet fever, typhoid, mumps, pertussis, colds, pleurisy, and, virulent forms of pneumonia and influenza along with respiratory infections, poliomyelitis, venereal syphilis, malaria, yellow fever and dysentery. The mortality rates from smallpox were appallingly high and the periodic outbreaks compounded the losses. Thornton, Miller and Warren (1991:41) conclude that â€Å"American Indian populations were exposed to cycles of population reduction caused by both recurrent epidemics of the same disease and by epidemics of newly encountered diseases experiencing ‘virgin veil’ conditions†. In 1779, smallpox broke out in Mexico City, and over the next four years the disease reached pandemic proportions, spreading in all directions; through the Southwest, the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains and by 1783 into Canada. Thousands of Indians died. Mortality rates of 90 per cent were commonplace; tribes were decimated, in some instances wholly obliterated. Indian populations fell into a precipitous decline; one estimate speculates that the population of Native Indians in North America fell by 74 percent between 1492 and 1800. In some regions populations recovered and in some areas increased, as refugees from other areas coalesced with existing groups, but all told, disease, in conjunction with war, slavery and other cultural disruptions determined there was scant opportunity for population recovery to occur. Treatment of epidemic related illnesses by traditional methods were often lethally counterproductive. Sweat lodge ceremonies to purify the body required convening people in a confined space and therefore making the airborne transmission of viruses easier. The profuse sweating brought about dangerous dehydration as did the use of customary herbal medicines, many of which contained cathartic and emetic properties. With the Indians resorting in anguish to curing societies and community rituals to combat new diseases; shamans explored new and more effective rituals through fasting and dreaming. The Mandan Indians, a farming tribe, living along the Missouri River at the edges of the Great Plains, were virtually wiped out by disease. When first encountered by the French in 1738 the Mandans population was approximately 15,000 but over the next hundred years, numbers declined dramatically. The Mandans location at the hub of the trade network on the Missouri River guaranteed exposure to the epidemic diseases sweeping through trade routes. Nucleated, sedentary tribes were hardest hit by disease; for the Mandans and â€Å"river peoples† like them, this caused further shifting of the power balance in the region to the Plains groups. After experiencing devastating losses in the smallpox pandemic of 1779-81, by June 1837 the Mandan population was at best 2,000; by October 1837, after another smallpox epidemic, 138 Mandan Indians remained. Like the Mandans, the Huron interactions with European traders inevitably brought disease to their villages. Prior to the summer of 1634, a Huron population of 30,000 persons and 20 villages was estimated by the French Jesuits who had lived among them. Influenza struck in 1636. Smallpox hit hard in the mid-1630s, returning in 1639 and by 1640 half the Huron people had been killed by the disease. A house to house census conducted by the Jesuits in the spring of 1639 and over the winter of 1639-40, documents the impact of the 1639-40 smallpox epidemic; the last in a series of catastrophic diseases between 1634 and 1640. A total of 12,000 Huron and their neighbors the Tionantate remained. As disease took its appalling toll, the Huron looked increasingly to the Jesuits for spiritual help. The missionaries who had been barely tolerated before, were largely unaffected by disease and therefore in the eyes of the Huron, men of power. Reinforcing this belief was the failure of the Huron shamans to forewarn or safeguard their people from the devastation. Over the course of the six years between 1634 and 1640, the Huron experienced a depopulation rate of 60 per cent. The Kiowa were a nomadic, buffalo-hunting tribe. They ranged from the head of the Missouri River to the Black Hills until driven southward by the Arapaho, Cheyenne and Sioux to the region near the Arkansas River in the early nineteenth century. At this time the Kiowa numbered around 2,000. Plains Indians being more dispersed, had a lesser chance of infection and greater chance of survival, but in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, epidemics of smallpox struck the Indians of the West hard. Up to half of the Plains Indians may have died in the smallpox pandemic of 1779-81, which had advanced along trade routes that the Indians followed to trade horses. The Dohasan calendar (1832-92) was begun by the Kiowa chief named Dohasan and continued until 1892 by his nephew when Dohasan died in 1866, chronicles sixty years of devastating change for the Kiowa. Using a copy of the calendar drawn by Dohasan himself, anthropologist James Mooney compiled an account of the events depicted by the calendar, from information supplied by Dohasan and supplemented with information from other Kiowa chronicles. The calendar accounts epidemics among the Kiowas in the winter of 1839-40 and 1861-62, and in the summer of 1849, cholera. By the summer of 1879, buffalo were so scarce that to keep from starving the Kiowas had to kill and eat their horses. The calendar ends in 1892 with a measles epidemic, which broke out at the reservation school, and once the school superintendent sent the sick children home, spread quickly. In 1848 gold was discovered in California, this inevitably brought more immigrants across the Plains, who in turn brought cholera, measles and scarlet fever to the Indians. The eventual conquest of the West by the American military came about in the in the aftermath of biological catastrophes which had left the Indians practically powerless and unable to resist. Conclude about how these experiences/events were critical in native American history Conclude by explaining why (or why not studying native American history is important today Native American history is important and it is imperative that it still be studied today. As part of the fundamental roots of this country; and the brutal behaviors It is impossible not to be apathetic to the Native Indians immense suffering at the hands of the formation of Colonial America. The gains achieved by the new America’ were at the detriment of the Indian people.

Slavery the most controversial themes in the history of the United States The WritePass Journal

Slavery the most controversial themes in the history of the United States Chapter 1   Introduction: Slavery the most controversial themes in the history of the United States Chapter 1   Introduction:Chapter Two â€Å"Set Out to Play an’ Court all Dey Pleased†: Courtship among the enslaved.Chapter 3 â€Å"Jumping the broom†: Weddings and Marriage amongst the enslavedChapter 4: ConclusionRelated Chapter 1   Introduction: Slavery is one of the most controversial themes in the history of the United States; throughout much of the past century historians have debated, sometimes quite heatedly, various interpretations of this area. For the purpose of this dissertation, the personal relationships amongst the enslaved will be the subject being examined. Early research into the area on slave relationship tended to focus on the instability of slave families, The controversial Moynihan report of 1965 argued that the harsh regime of slavery shattered family ties of all that had been bound by it, and as a result the future generations of the ‘Negro Family’ lacked in strength and stability, Moynihan claimed that the majority of slave families â€Å"developed a fatherless matrifocal (mother-centred) pattern†[as men were absent husbands and fathers.    Elkins notorious study on Slavery in 1959 also negatively depicted slave relationships. Elkins compared slavery to the Nazi system of concentration camps, arguing that the enslaved were psychologically infantilized by the regime. Elkins’ argued that the totalitarian environment and â€Å"absolute power† held by the slave owners destroyed slaves capacity to resist the regime and form any sort of positive relationship with one another. Elkins asserted that the slave master was the only significant other in the life of a slave, and believed that significant bonds between slaves were unattainable. However, these views of slavery tended to focus on the perception of the slave owners and neglected the views of the enslaved. In the 1970’s new revisionist historians shifted to examining perspectives of the slave rather than that of the master, moving towards investigating ‘history from below’. The works of Gutman, Blassingame and Levine were of the first historians to look at slavery from this angle[5]; their works focused on the cultural aspects of the lives of the enslaved, a view that had been previously neglected. Similarities between their studies showed that cultural autonomy allowed slaves to distance themselves from the psychological pressures of the slavery regime and made it possible to establish and maintain positive, loving relationships. Gutman criticised the earlier orthodox views of slavery put forward by Elkins, Moynihan and Frazier, arguing that they did not appreciate the extraordinary â€Å"adaptive capacities† of the African American slaves in spite of the rigours imposed under slavery. The revisionist historians tended to focus on what Engerman referred to as â€Å"the positive accomplishments of slaves under slavery.† However more recently historians have criticised this approach, believing that the resilience and autonomy of the slaves have been overstated, shadowing the harsh truths of slavery, Kolchin’s studies claim that revisionist historians have created â€Å"an exaggerated picture of strength and cohesion of the slave community.† However one must note that by accentuating resilience and the desire for independence does not mean that historians are romanticising the whole regime of slavery and that the restrictions and exploitations imposed on slaves by their masters were not significant. Rather as West argues the fact that the enslaved strove for independence under the terrible hardships of the regime is of immense importance, since it â€Å"highlights the desire for freedom within the context of the restraints imposed by slaveholders.† For slaves, spousal love and support was of vital importance in the fight for cultural autonomy and also to provide shelter and support from their bleak lives under bondage.    This research project will further this perspective, in the attempt to show that the relationships between enslaved spouses facilitated the desire for and the development of a social space between the lives of slaves and owners and a means of resistance against oppression. This dissertation will attempt to show the strength slave relationships under and in spite of the harsh restraints of bondage. The chapters within this dissertation will look at enslaved courtship and marriage under the regime of slavery; each assessing the strength of these relationships in spite of the hardships and restrictions placed upon them. Slavery in America was present for almost two decades; it would difficult to adequately cover these issues for this entire period, for this reason this dissertation will focus on the antebellum period (1820-1860) of slavery which took place before the civil war. The significance of this period is that slavery had already been established and legislated for a long time thus providing historians with numerous sources of evidence in which to study. The limit of this period for one looking at cultural issues, is the fact that by this time there would be very few African born slaves; so this dissertation will be unable to look directly at the role played by native African slaves, as Kolchin argues that Antebellum period lacked the â€Å"large-scale infusions from Africa that might have served to foster separate black cultural forms by reinforcing a cultural continuity with the traditions of their ancestors†.[11] The majority of the slaves in the antebellum period would have been bo rn and brought up under the regime of slavery, however, this smaller scope of study should not be looked at negatively, as Levine argues that the slave culture is one of oral tradition, where culture was passed on from generation to generation by stories, songs and folk tales therefore African culture would still be relevant in the lives of Antebellum slaves.[12] As this dissertation is focusing on the antebellum period, it is limited to the Southern States of America as slavery had already been abolished in the Northern States. Although this may seem a broad geographical area, this dissertation will hope to prove that regardless of location the enslaved strove for the same autonomy to shape their own personal lives and relationships. American Slavery has been an area where sources of evidence has been heatedly criticised, the majority of early research into this topic was based primarily on ‘white’ sources which tended to rationalise the exploitation of their black counterparts. Other revisionist historians have focused on ex-slave testimonies which too have been criticised as being unreliable which will be discussed in more detail further on. However this dissertation will draw from sources of oral testimony left behind by former slaves, as Frederick Douglass explains one â€Å"cannot see things in the same light with the slave, because he does not, and cannot, look from the same point from which the slave does†[13] The Works Progress Administration Narratives (which will be referred to as WPA throughout this dissertation) are a collection of other 2,300 interviews of former slaves from the southern states conducted from 1936-38. These interviews are of vital importance when investigating slavery from the perspective of the enslaved and gives historians insight into the personal lives of slaves which is neglected in the majority of ‘white’ sources. There is however many arguments against the reliability of these narratives, the main one is that over two thirds of the respondents were more than eighty when they were interviewed, it has been suggested that their memories of bondage would affected over time, and that they were only young children during the regime of slavery. West explains that even though the respondent memory may have dimmed with age, they still remembered â€Å"a great deal about life under the peculiar institution†Ã‚   Moreover even if slave narratives weren’t perfectly recollected, the nature of the unique source still holds immense value to that of a historian. Another issue that has been noted is that many respondents would have been children at the time of slavery; this could be problematic when assessing courting and marital relationships as the former slaves could have possibly been too young to partake in these types of relationships themselves, however as previously mentioned Levine’s study shows American slave culture was one that rested on folk tales and the passing down of stories through the generations, therefore slave testimony on their parents and grandparents relationships will still be highly significant to this study. To end with Woodward brilliantly sums up that even though the WPA narratives are sometimes confusing and contradictory â€Å"they represent the voices of the normally voiceless, the inarticulate masses whose silence historians are forever lamenting† Chapter Two â€Å"Set Out to Play an’ Court all Dey Pleased†: Courtship among the enslaved. As detailed in the introduction this dissertation will examine the personal relationships in which slaves participated; in the attempt to show the strength of these relationships and also the degree in which slaves strove for the autonomy from their masters to develop and maintain these relations. This chapter will examine the role of courtship amongst the enslaved, although there has been much more recent research into the ‘romantic’ lives of slaves since the wave of revisionist historians in the 1970’s, courtship has been looked at as a ‘mere passage instead of its own social event’; historian’s have either overlooked this area completely or merged it into a broader study of marriage. This chapter will detail early historical views of enslaved courtship before discussing the variety of restrictions which were in place to hinder courtship before finally discussing the ways in which the enslaved managed to create meaningful relationships of the ir own. By the antebellum period slavery had become institutionalised across the American South, slaveholders were increasingly concerned with controlling every aspect of their ‘properties’ lives, especially that of sexual unions. This is due to the abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade in 1808, which stopped any more African people being imported as slaves; hence the sexual unions that slaves created became increasingly important to slaveholders to insure that they would have future generations of slaves to perpetuate the southern social order. Oral testimony from the former slave, Hannah Jones showed that there were some plantations who â€Å"just raised niggers†. By examining other slave testimonies it can be seen that many slave owners decided who their slaves would be with, in order to produce the best offspring. Katie Darling, a slave born in Texas in 1849, argued that slaves didn’t court each other under the restraints of Slavery, merely that their mast ers would â€Å"pick out a po’tly and a po’tly gal and jist put ‘em together† to reproduce as he needed more â€Å"stock†. This shows one of main reasons why historians have neglected the topic of enslaved courtship as they viewed the way in which slaves formed relationships to some extent as an insensitive and unemotional process, as the majority of masters’ chose partners for their slaves with little or no considerations of their personal feelings. Genovese acknowledged that in some cases; masters had a paternalistic attitudes towards their slaves and let them choose their own partner yet the process was still not regarded as a ‘romantic’ one as â€Å"if a man saw a girl he liked he would ask his master’s permission to ask the master of the girl for her. If his master consented and her master consented then they came togetherâ€Å" As a result of forced breeding, coerced relationships, and the ‘unemotional’ joining of partner as detailed in ‘white’ sources and also in a few slave narratives, Fraser concluded that â€Å"courtship and the normal relationships preliminary to marriage seldom existed†.   By examining more of the WPA slave narratives, however, it can be seen that this negative image of courtship was not always the case; instead one can see the importance that the enslaved placed on the creation of their personal relationships, as they â€Å"sought to define the nature and shape of their own courtship experiences.†Ã‚   By examining the ‘courtships’ of those who were bound by slavery, historians can gain insight into the cultural and social aspects of their rituals and how the enslaved strove to meet and choose their significant other, free from the influence of their master. Within this dissertation numerous WPA slave narratives will be discussed to show the extent of personal relationships between the enslaved. However when looking into the area of courtship one must note that the majority of former slaves who partook in these testimonies were young children during the years of bondage, hence they may not have participated in courtships themselves until after slavery and historians must acknowledge this issue. However this does not mean that the testimonies are of no value as many recount the stories that have been passed on to them or those they witnessed personally, giving historians insight into how courtship was shaped within the slave community and also how the slaves strove for the autonomy to create strong relationship bonds. A perspective that many traditional historians neglected as can be seen in the previous chapter as they used primarily ‘white’ sources. Many slave owners expected to decide the timing of courtship and coupling among slaves and to constrain their slaves’ choice of partner to suit their own needs; such as keeping their slaves on their plantations at all times and producing ‘quality’ offspring destined to be the master’s future slaves and/or income. To make sure this was the case slave holders placed numerous restrictions in the way of their slaves’ courtships; time was one of the largest constraints faced by the enslaved, as Smith explains â€Å"all time on the plantation, whether work or leisure, was ultimately the master’s to bestow, manipulate and define†. With slaves spending all their time working in the fields or domestically in the masters house, even when their long day at work was over, their master still controlled what they did and even when they had to go to sleep. For example, Ex-slave Matida Mckinney explained the concept of curfews on her plantation, pointi ng out that the â€Å"curfew horn was blown and no lights could be lighted after its warning not had sounded. There was very little visiting to or from the group which dwelt here, as the curfew hour was early† This shows how relatively little freedom slaves had in their day to day lives to socialise or court one another. As well as time, slave owners also restricted their slave’s mobility. The enslaved were restricted to the boundaries of their plantations. The Former slave Austin Steward points out that â€Å"Slaves are never allowed to leave the plantation which they belong, without a written pass. Should anyone venture to disobey this law, he will most likely be caught by the patrol and given thirty-nine lashes.† The enslaved had to gain their masters permission to leave their plantation, they were required to get a written pass, detailing their master’s name, the origin of their trip and their destination, and they were also required to produce this pass at the request of any white person. Not only were their ‘patrollers’ hindering slaves geographical mobility but slave owners also placed physical boundaries, such as high fences, around the perimeter of their plantations to contain and restrict slaves mobility further. Former slave Louisa Adams argues that â€Å"All de plantation wuz fenced in, dat is all de fields, wid rails; de rails wuz ten feet long† It should be noted here that the restrictions imposed on the enslaved were inconsistent throughout the Antebellum South, not just in differing states but â€Å"between slaveholders themselves; urban and rural environments and different police measures in the county†Regardless of these restrictions the enslaved managed to control their personal relationships through working around the restrictions enforced upon them by the regime of slavery. Certain social events were organised by the slave owners and occurred as part of the work regime, for example ‘corn shucking’ and ‘candy pulling’ where numerous slaves from neighbouring plantations would come together to complete a large task. Even though the slaves were working on these occasions by reviewing many of the WPA slave testimonies it can be seen that the enslaved looked forward to these events and the majority described them as ‘fun’. As well as working the slaves had the chance to engage in socialising, flirtation and courtship at these events. For instance, they played numerous courtship games such as ‘kissing for a red ear of corn’ and ‘dropping the handkerchief’ which allowed them to possibly establish a meaningful personal relationships.   The former slave Anna Wright explained how these organised events offered a good place for the enslaved to meet a potential partner but also for existing couples to continue their courtship, she explained that courting couples relished these days as they could â€Å"set out to play an’ court all dey pleased†. Therefore the enslaved managed to manipulate some of the terms of their working lives to their own ends. As well as these occasions, many slave owners also recognised different times of the year as holidays, during these times the usual time and mobility restrictions enforced on the enslaved were temporarily relaxed allowing slaves to move between different plantations and spend time socialising and courting. For instance for Christmas Holiday which could last anything from a couple of days to a couple of weeks, one former slave detailed that on his plantation from Christmas through to new year the slaves â€Å"feast, an’ we dance, an’ we sing.† Another slave explained that at Christmas, slaves â€Å"went up de riber to other plantations ter dances an’ all dem things† However it must be noted that these opportunities were completely dependent on the slave owner, who could withdraw these privileges at any time or choose not to partake in them at all. It can be seen so far that the enslaved had very little opportunity to partake in courtships, and the opportunities they had, if any, to escape being governed by their masters were seldom. Some slaves, however, resisted these restrictions which bound them and sought to have a social world separate to their plantation and thus developed ‘alternative or illicit social spaces, where they socialised, flirted and courted without the presence or consent of the slave owner’. The enslaved would go to unauthorised ‘frolics’ or their significant other’s plantations without obtaining the permission of their master in order to pursue or create a courtship. For example, ex-slave Penny Williams recounted that â€Å"Dar was some nigger men what ud go courtin’ spite de debil, an’ master ain’t gibbin dem no passes dey go widout ‘em† She also detailed how regardless of the punishment bestowed on them when they were caught, they would still continue this behaviour in pursuit of love. This point was furthered by former slave Hugh Berry, who described that he would risk severe punishment to â€Å"go back over there to see that girl†.   By doing this the enslaved defied and resisted the systems of control, such as time and geography. In conclusion, the enslaved in the antebellum south strove to meet and court a significant other of their choosing. Slave utilised the time that their owners allowed them, such as work based event and holidays to extend the limits of their lives, but they also strove to establish romantic bonds with one another in spaces that was separate from their plantation and their master’s authority. This chapter shows the value and importance slaves placed on their courtships, so much so that they would risk a severe beating in order to pursue their love interest. Also by examining slave testimonies, one can see that courtship was a vital stage in the romantic relationships of the enslaved, despite being neglected by early academics. Chapter 3 â€Å"Jumping the broom†: Weddings and Marriage amongst the enslaved The last chapter analysed the opportunities the enslaved had to meet and court a partner of their own choosing, this chapter will look at the next stage in the romantic relationship; marriage. Slave marriages have been one of the most controversial areas of research within the topic of slavery, numerous orthodox historians viewed slave marriages as weak and unstable, Stampp believed that with all the constraints imposed on the enslaved, ‘no deep or enduring affection could develop between husband and wives’.This chapter will examine the extent to which this claim is true, focusing on the difficulties and restrictions that affected slave marriages and how the enslaved managed to overcome them. The first question this chapter will examine is opportunities that the enslaved had to get married; the southern legal system never recognised slave marriages on the grounds that property could not enter into a legal contract, slave holders would not tolerate a legal contract that would interfere with their rights to dispose of their property as they pleased, therefore early scholars concluded that marital relationships could not have existed amongst slaves. However, throughout this chapter it can be seen that this was not the case; although slave marriages were not legislated they were culturally formed and respected by the slave community. As in courtship, marriages between slaves were greatly influenced by the slaveholders; some slave owners forbade their slaves to enter in marriage at all. There were many different reasons for this, one of which being the threat to the master’s authority, for example Harriet Jacob’s master rejected her requests to wed a free black man as he thought that it would displace her loyalties to him, he asserted, â€Å"Well, I’ll soon convince you whether I am your master, or that nigger fellow you honour so highly†. Another reason for master’s forbidding enslaved matrimony, which is suggested by reviewing slave testimonies, is the practice of forced breeding as discussed in the previous chapter. A former slave recalled the application of this in her plantation; â€Å"As a rule negro men were not allowed to marry at all, any attempt to mate with the negro women brought swift, sure horrible punishment and the species were propagated by selected male Negros, who were kept for this purpose, the owners of this privileged negro, charged a fee of one out of every four of his offspring for his services† A former Texas slave, also described a less explicit way of forced breeding, where the women on his plantation were paired and forced to cohabit with a mate that their master deemed as suitable, as effective reproduction was more important to the slave owner than his slave emotions. Franklin believed that this was the case for the majority of slave women, who were forced into ‘relationships’ and pregnancy by the venality of her master, Franklin asserted this made it unlikely that slaves would ever establish a loving and affectionate bond with their significant other. Conversely, even though numerous slaves were coerced into relationships, some managed to manipulate their masters so they could be with the person of their choosing. An example of this can be seen in the testimony of former slave Virgina Yarbrough, who recalled once when her master forced two slaves together even though they were in love with others, they slept in separate beds â€Å"Twas’ bout three months aftah, de marster see thar am no chillums gwine to be bo’n, so he tuks her f’om dat fellow an’ ‘lows her to stay wid de one she laks.† However, it must be noted that this happened in the minority. By examining numerous slave testimonies, however, one can determine that the majority of slave owners did allow slaves to marry the person of their choosing, as Genevese explains most owners understood that if slaves were denied their request to marry the one they loved, they would become sullen workers and would be more likely to run away. Slave owners also allowed informal ceremonies to mark marital unions amongst slaveseven if there were not legitimate. This Chapter will now examine some of the various ceremonial rituals which took place at slave weddings; one of the most common of these rituals was jumping over the broomstick where slave couples literally jumped over a broomstick together and were then married. Historians take different views on the meaning of this ceremony; Blassingame and Gutman believed this ritual originated in Africa and was initiated by the slaves themselves. On the contrary, Stevenson argues that the broomstick ritual derived from pre-Christian Europe and was passed down generations as a quaint and amusing remnant of the past, Stevenson believes this ritual was imposed on slaves by their masters, which suggested the lack of respect and honour slave-owners held for their ‘blacks attempt to create meaningful marital relationships’ By reviewing numerous slave testimonies that describe the broom stick ceremony, they tend to fit in with Stevenson’s analysis of the ceremony, this can be seen by the use of coercive language, that they were required to perform this ceremony. Again reaffirming the master’s control over slave marriages; for example Georgina Giwbs said that, ‘When yer married, yer had to jump over the broom three times. Dat wuz de licence. ’ Another instance of this can be seen by reviewing the testimony of George Womble,   he describes that slaves ‘were commanded to jump over the broom ’. All slave ceremonies were not as basic as jumping over a broomstick, they ranged from extravagant weddings as described in several slave testimonies, for example Tempie Durham recalled her â€Å"big weddin†, where her master arranged for her to have a â€Å"big weddin’ cake†, a massive feast, a bible wedding ceremony with a â€Å"nigger preacher† and a grand white wedding dress.   One may question why masters would arrange elaborate ceremonies for their slaves, Stampp suggests the reason is for the white masters to mock and belittle their black ‘property’, delighting in watching ‘a bride and groom move awkwardly through the wedding ceremony’. Genovese, however, disagree with this notion; instead believing that masters indulged slaves on their wedding days expecting that in return slaves would become more loyal and work harder. Regardless of the ulterior motives of masters, Will’s research shows that slaves preferred the e laborate trappings of the white culture, this signifies how the enslaved wished to have the same opportunities as their white counterparts to celebrate their personal relationships For the enslaved, wedding ceremonies legitimised their personal relationships to the extent possible during their time in bondage. The value and importance of these ceremonies held by slaves; whether extravagant events held in their masters house or the simple act of jumping over the broomstick, reflect the commitment slaves held in marriage and also the importance of the communal validation of their relationships. As with so many issues vital to the enslaved, white laws and planter control inevitably limited the range of marriage options open to slaves, yet working within the range and persistently attempting to widen this range of possibilities as seen also in the previous chapter, slaves forged marriage rituals that they not their masters ultimately determined and guarded. The importance of attaining marriage status alone is not sufficient evidence however to prove that slave marriages were not weak, unstable and unaffectionate as orthodox historians suggested. Another factor which led early scholars to label slave marriages with negative connotations   was the idea that slaves were sexually promiscuous, and could not remain faithful to one another, as one white slave mistress recounted â€Å"Not one in a thousand, I suppose, of these poor creatures have a conception whatever of the sanctity of marriage†. This is reiterated in some slave narratives, for example an former slave from Alabama explained that he couldn’t stay with the same woman instead he â€Å"jes tuck up wid one likely gal ater anoder† Gutman, however, argues that this was not the case and ‘fidelity was expected from slave men and women after marriage’by reviewing numerous slave narratives one can see that the majority of married slaves were loyal to each other regardless of the adverse situations they found themselves in. For example, Susan Snow a former slave, recalled that she â€Å"never hear’d tell o’ wives runnin’ round wid other men in dem days† Another example of the enslaved devotion to their spouse is recalled by Bryant Huff, who father was sold far away yet his mother refused to be unfaithful to him, she â€Å" grieved over his departure and refused, although urged, to marry again†. A serious problem which affected slave marriages was not the loyalty between spouses but the sexual exploitation faced by female slaves at the hands of white men usually their master, former Slave Henry Bibb explained that   Ã¢â‚¬Å"slaves wives cannot be true to their husbands they dare not refuse to be reduced to a state of adultery at the will of her master† This was extremely difficult for female slaves but also their significant others who were often powerless to stop the abuse; Henry Bibb further detailed his experience of when his wife Malinda was being sexually abused by their master, â€Å"I was compelled to stand and see my wife shamefully scourged and abused by her master; and the manner in which it was done, was so violently and inhumanely committed upon the person of a female, that I despair in finding decent language to describe the bloody act of cruelty† Some male slaves attempted to protect their wives from this abuse, former South Carolina slave Philip Evans recalled how his aunt was abused by a white overseer, her husband Dennis then attacked the overseer before fleeing into the woods, he was then caught and jailed before being stripped and flogged, the abuse on his wife still continued. By assessing these two testimonies it shows historians that however difficult it must have been for slave couple to endure sexual exploitation, the fact that they did is further evidence of the strength of slave marriages and the support spouses provided to one another. Another factor which would give a historian insight into determining the strength of slave marriages; is the length of time slaves were married. An example of this can be seen by reviewing the journal of a former slave holder Chaplin who noted that two of his female slaves had been married for over twenty seven years, he found that this was a strange phenomenon but by reviewing numerous slave testimonies one can draw the conclusion that it was common for slave marriages to be lifelong unions, unless broken by separation (which will discussed in more detail further on in this chapter). This is reiterated by the work of Gutman, his study showed that the majority of slaves remained married when possible, as only 9% of slaves in his study had separated due to mutual consent or by desertion Franklin believed that the permanency of a slave marriage would depend on the extent to which the couple could live and work together, based on this he deemed that slave marriages would only work if the couple remained together on the same plantation. However, as aforementioned slave marriages could not be legitimised as it would interfere with the owner’s rights to sell or give away their ‘property’, this meant that slave marriages were under constant threat of separation either through long distance or local sales, being gifted between white family members and also when estates of deceased owners were divided up Crawford estimates that nearly a quarter of all slave families were broken by sale. Slave owners understood the value slaves held in their marriage and used this knowledge as a way to control their slaves; the threat of being separated from their spouses was the most feared punishment, ‘a haunting fear which made all of the slave’s days miserable’ This overwhelming fear of being separated from their spouses shows further evidence of the importance of marital ties between the enslaved. Gutman 1970 study highlighted the strength of marital and family ties, however it has been criticised as his work only focused on large plantations where marital and family bonds would have been stronger, however it must be noted that these large plantations, where hundreds of slave presided were the exception, not the norm, Crawford’s research showed less than 50% of slaves lived on the same plantation as their significant other. The Majority of the enslaved in South were from small plantations with only a few other slaves, this meant much to their master’s dismay that they had to form cross plantation unions. These Cross plantation marriages were said to have constituted for over 33% of slave marriages, whilst these arrangements have been denigrated, work from revisionist historians have used them to exemplify the strength of marital bonds between the enslaved. Another important detail to note is that even slaves from large plantations sometimes married slaves from ot her plantations; the existence of cross plantation marriages amongst these slaves shows historians another example of the enslaved striving for autonomy from their masters. Cross Plantation Marriages were obviously harder than maintaining a relationship with a significant other on the same plantation; but despite the drawbacks, slaves went to incredible lengths to maintain their long distance relationships; for example A slave owner described how one of his slaves walked 40 miles to see his wife, only love explains his willingness to repeat this trip over and over again. Cross plantation unions also took place between free blacks and slaves, in many of these cases the free slave would attempt to purchase their significant other to no avail, however an example of the devotion held in these unions can be seen in the case of Samuel Small, a free black, who became a slave for seven years to pay for his wives freedom. Recently Russell has argued that local as well as long distance sales caused the high rates of family separations, however West believes that even though any type of separation would cause great anguish, the system of cross plantation unions coupled with the strength of relationships between spouses meant in the case of local separations the consequences may have not been so damaging. This chapter will draw attention to one final area, slave marriages once they were free; Gutman emphasised that when slaves were emancipated they went to great efforts to reunite with their families which they had been separated from. Molly Tillman recounted the anguish she felt when her master sold her husband to another state, â€Å"well ma’am, I grieved fo’ dat nigger so dat my heart wuz heavy in my breas’. I know I never would see him no more† after emancipation she still could not get over her husband until one day several years later she found him â€Å"I wuz so happy I shouted all over dat meetin’ house. We jes’ tuck up whar we   lef’ off an’ ‘fo’ long us got married† they lived happily as man and wife until he died 20 years later. The enthusiasm in which slaves registered to be legally married after the emancipation shows how much they valued their marriages. In conclusion, with all the difficulties that affected matrimonial ties between slaves on can understand why many historians deemed slave marriages as weak and unstable. However, when assessing the issues faced by slaves; legitimacy, the control owners had over their slave, forced coupling, sexual exploitation and separation, the fact that the majority of slaves managed to work through these and still managed to create deep and enduring relationships show the truth strength, resilience and value of slave marriages. By reviewing numerous slave testimonies, it is clear that through their words and behaviour slaves repeatedly strove to make their marriages last, the enslaved worked strenuously within and around the power structure which restricted their lives to maintain their marriages. Chapter 4: Conclusion In Conclusion this dissertation has shown that the enslaved of the antebellum South strove for autonomy from their masters and the harsh restraints of slavery; to do this they created strong and loving bonds with a significant other. By creating their own social space to create and maintain these unions, this illustrates that slaves were able to survive and resists the oppression they faced under bondage. Slave owners constantly intruded on the lives of their slaves, believing it was their right to control every aspect of the lives of their slaves, they attempted to decide, sometimes successfully, the opportunities slaves had to meet a potential partner, the partner their slaves should be with, the type of wedding ceremony their slaves received if any, the amount of time they could spend with their significant other and finally to separate romantic unions for sales or if they saw fit. These constant impingements forced slaves to adopt what West depicted as an â€Å"underground† approach to their ‘romantic’ lives . This has been described throughout this research project, entailing secret frolics, socialising with slaves in different plantations, celebrating marriages with appropriate ceremonies, and finally risking severe punishing at the hands of their masters or the patrollers to be able to visit the one they loved. The majority of slave testimonies that have been examined throughout this research project have shown that the majority of slaves strove to marry the person of their choosing and were also prepared to withstand great hardships to maintain their marriages. This is contradictory of the early academic views on slave relationships, especially that of Elkins as aforementioned, who believed that slavery destroyed slave’s capacity to resist the regime in any capacity, and form relationships with anyone other than their master. The research for this dissertation has shown the opposite, that in fact the majority of slaves managed to create and maintain loving and enduring marriages despite the regime of bondage, this strength is further highlighted when examining the sexual exploitation faced by female slaves and how in many cases their significant other either attempted to protect them or provided love and support to shelter them from such adversity. Another noteworthy factor when acc essing the strengths of enslaved romantic bonds is that of cross plantation union, which as previously discussed shows the lengths slaves would go to be with the one they loved, including risking cruel violent punishments to see their loved ones as much as possible. As mentioned in the introduction chapter Kolchin believes that this positive perspective on slavery dismissed the hardships of the regime, believing instead the slaves in fact flourished during their time in bondage, however this is not what this project is attempting to achieve, instead it is the fact that slaves strove for autonomy to form a connection with another, which gave them a separate identity than that of a slave, embodying roles such as companion, confidante and soulmate. Indeed for the enslaved of the antebellum South, falling in love was burdened with extreme emotional and physical difficulties, even former slave Harriet Jacobs asked herself: â€Å"Why does the slave ever love? Why allow the tendrils of the heart to twine around objects which may at any moment be wrenched away by the hand of violence†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   West explained that despite all the problems ‘romantic’ bonds entailed, the majority of marriages amongst the enslaved sheltered and supported them in face of adversity, these loving, affectionate, and supportive relationships created a mindset of cultural independence. Finally to end with a quote from Rawick; â€Å"While from sunup to sundown the American slave worked for another and was harshly exploited, from sundown to sunup he lived for himself and created the behavioural and institutional basis which prevented him from becoming the absolute victim† Bibliography Primary Sources Berlin, I. Favreau, M. Miller, S. F. 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Rosengarten, T. (Ed) Tombee: Potrait of a Cotton Planter, with the Plantation Journal of Thomas B. Chaplin, 1822-1890. London: William Morrow, 1986. Secondary Sources Blassingame, J. W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972. Crawford, S. Quantified Memory: A Study of WPA Slave Narrative Collection US: University of Chicago, 1980. Davies, C. T. Gates, H. L. (Eds) The Slave’s Narrative London: Oxford University Press, 1985. Dusinberre, W. Them Dark Days: Slavery in the American Rice Swamps London: Oxford University Press, 1996. Elkins, S. M. Slavery: A problem in American institution and intellectual life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959. Fogel, R. W. Engerman, S. L. Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1974 Franklin, J. H. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans (Third Edition) New York: Alfred. A. Knopf, 1967. Fraser, R. Courtship and Love Among the Enslaved in North Carolina US: University Press of Mississippi, 2007.      Frazier, E. F. ‘The Negro Family in the United States’ The Journal of Negro History, 1930, 15, 2, 198-259. Genovese, E, D. Roll, Jordon, Roll, New York; Random House, 1974. Griffin, R. J. ‘Goin’ Back Over There to See That Girl’ Competing Social Spaces in the Lives of the Enslaved in Antebellum North Carolina’ Slavery and Abolition, 2004, 25, 1, 94-113. Gutman, H. G. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925. US: Pantheon Books, 1976. Hudson, L. E. (Ed) Working toward Freedom: Slave Society and Domestic Economy in the American South New York: University of Rochester Press, 1994. Hudson, L. E. To Have and To Hold: Slave Work and Family Life in Antebellum South Carolina. US: University of Georgia Press, 1997. Kolchin, P. ‘Reevaluating the Antebellum Slave Community: A Comparative Perspective’ The Journal of American History 1983, 70, 3, 579-601. Kolchin, P. American Slavery London: Penguin Books, 1993. Lawrence, L. W. Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought From Slavery to Freedom .London: Oxford University Press, 1977.   Merritt, C. E. Slave Family and Household Arrangements in Piedmont, Georgia US: Emory University, 1986. Moynihan, D. P. The Negro Family: The Case for National Action, Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1965. Schwartz, M. J. Born in Bondage: Growing up Enslaved in the Antebellum South US: Harvard University Press, 2001. Smith, M. M. Mastered by the Clock: Time, Slavery and Freedom in the American South US: University of Carolina Press, 1997. Stampp, K. M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956. Stevenson, B. E. Life in Black and White: Family and Community in the Slave South London: Oxford University Press, 1996. West, E. ‘The debate on the Strength of Slave Families: South Carolina and the importance of Cross Plantation Marriages’ Journal of American Studies 1999, 33, 2, 221-241. West, E. Chain of Love: Slave Couples in the antebellum South Carolina. US: University of Illinois Press, 2004. White, D. G. Ar’n’t I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South London: Norton Company Ltd, 1985. Will, T. E. ‘Weddings on Contested Grounds: Slave Marriages in the Antebellum South’ The Historian 1999, 62, 1, 99-117.

On the 7th Febuary 1929 Guiness ran its first Essays

On the 7th Febuary 1929 Guiness ran its first Essays On the 7th Febuary 1929 Guiness ran its first Essay On the 7th Febuary 1929 Guiness ran its first Essay Essay Topic: 7th Grade Equus Measuring Changes in Guinness Advertising. On the 7ThursdayFebruary 1929 Guinness ran its first advertizement in the British national imperativeness. It was a pretty unimpressive attempt. A column of text in seven paragraphs lauding the virtuousnesss ofGuinnessfor its medicative belongingss, claiming that it builds musculuss, fixs nervousnesss and was a valuable tonic and a remedy for insomnia. The page was busy and a job to read, but the printing engineering of the clip allowed for small else more to be designed. However the ad did incorporate two cardinal elements that were to organize the bedrock of future runs. First embolden and enlarged where the words â€Å"Guinnessis good for you, † this became the first of many mottos that have been used excessively sell the drink. The 2nd and most critical component was the little illustration of a pint ofGuinness. With its typical black organic structure and contrasting white caput the drink was immediately recognizable on the pages of a black and white newsletter. This was an advantage thatGuinnesshad over all beers and laagers. The black and white pint was an immediately recognizable and powerful icon and one that they have continued to utilize over the old ages. From these beginnings assorted marketing runs have used these elements to mark markets both wide and ague. Through well-conceived and composed images and cagey pun Guinness’s selling scheme has managed to alter and accommodate with the times to systematically be a pioneering company at the pinnacle of modern-day advertisement. This essay will look at how they have systematically adapted selling scheme and changed with the times through an consciousness of societal clime and an apprehension of semiotic theory from the people who were responsible for bring forthing those ads. The first company charged with the duty of taking attention of the Guinness advertisement scheme was SH Benson. Benson held the history from 1927 to 1969. Most famously over this period were the John Gilroy postings. These postings became an establishment of popular civilization and still decorate the walls of Irish saloons and pupil sleeping rooms the length and comprehensiveness of the state. Possibly the two most iconic of Gilroy’s posting runs where the â€Å"Guinnessfor Strength† and the series of the harassed zookeeper and his menagerie of animate beings. The â€Å"Guinnessfor Strength† run featured the catch phrase and an illustration of overdone physical art by a on the job category supporter such as a labourer, husbandman or woodman. It besides fell under the umbrella of the â€Å"Guinnessis good for you† ploy. The â€Å"Man with the girder† posting epitomized the run. It featured a reasonably looking workman have oning a level cap transporting an tremendous steel girder above his caput on the fingertips of one manus. The position is such that the adult male and the girder are traveling left to compensate. The terminal of the girder is in the top right manus corner of the page. You about acquire the feeling that the adult male has the strength to raise him and the girder of the page. The bottom tierce of the sheet was covered in big bold ruddy letters that about leap from the whitish background to proclaim â€Å"GUINNESS FOR STRENGTH.† This ad clearly appealed to the workman, it was a masculine image of strength and an avowal of a strong work moral principle that in bend reflects on both the physical and the moral character of those who drankGuinness. Not merely wasGuinnessa wages for those who spent their yearss laboring and tuging for their households, it was besides good for them. The success of this ad lies within its simpleness. In ‘Rhetoric of the Image’ Roland Barthes argues that the message of an advertizement comes from â€Å"three [ single ] messages ; a lingual message ; a coded iconic message and a non-coded iconic message.† [ 1 ] The image is merely one image but has a actual significance, ( what you see ) and what you are led to experience ( any associatory connexions to the image. ) The map of the diction therefore is â€Å"anchorage and relay, † that is that the words themselves relieve the image from any ambiguity and concentrate the spectator on the right associations that the advertizer is seeking to arouse. This posting has three simple words â€Å"GUINNESS FOR STRENGTH, † this anchors the image by stating the spectator that it is theGuinnessthat has made the workingman strong. The man’s garb in peculiar his level cap and the fact that he is a labourer show us that he is a workman. The coded message is thatGuinnessis a healthy and merited luxury for the adult male who has spent his twenty-four hours working. The thought that â€Å"Guinnessis good for you† was the foundation of the early runs. Guinness smartly pursued this line actively seeking physicians who would impart their personal voice to a run in return for a few free crates. Booklets were produced urgingGuinnessfor all types of complaints including anaemia and insomnia and was besides recommended to pregnant adult females and nursing female parents as a tonic. One posting of the †Guinnessis good for† you run featured seven pints ofGuinnesson an whitish background. The familiar ruddy inscription at the underside of the page held the motto, but the top of the page read â€Å"AGuinnessa twenty-four hours, † an obvious Riff on the old stating ‘an apple a twenty-four hours keeps the physician away.† The annoyed Zoo Keeper run, kept the bolded ruddy font of the â€Å"Guinnessfor strength† every bit good as the physical wit. These ads featured a menagerie keeper in the chip bluish uniform whose was invariably at odds with the reasonably looking animate beings of his charge that where stealing his pints ofGuinness. These animate beings included an ostrich, a serpent, a king of beasts and sea king of beasts. Most famously of class was the Guinness toucan. The motto was â€Å"My Goodness MY GUINNESS.† These ads had a broadened entreaty without losing the sense of the old run. The familiar inscription, off-whit background and aesthetic manner were the same and drew associations with what had come before it. The zookeeper was still a representative for the workman and the word goodness alluded to the medicative belongingss of the drink. The wit was still at that place but the accent had shifted off from the successful workman to the downtrodden 1.Guinnesswas non merely a wages for a twenty-four hours of good honest difficult work it was besides the wages for a nerve-racking twenty-four hours of difficult work. In an early illustration of the manner that Guinness has invariably been able to accommodate to societal and cultural alteration the run was tweaked during the Second World War to turn the zookeeper into a member of the place guard. This cannily taped into a corporate wartime spirit for the demand to hike morale through wit and good times, whilst at the same time confirming the necessity to make your spot for the war attempt. The menagerie of animate beings and the â€Å"Guinnessis good for you† runs combined forces in a 1939 posting of a pelican with seven bottles of beer in its oral cavity. Even at this early phase of Guinness advertisement at that place where already cognizing self-referential nods to the popularity and acquaintance of the Guinness iconography. However there would shortly be a new challenge for Benson and one that would finally take to the loss of the Guinness contract. On September 22neodymium1955 ITV was launched and along with came the birth of commercial Television advertisement in Great Britain. All of a sudden there was a wholly new medium for companies to work and understandably it took a piece for those companies to acquire to grips with the medium. The initial Television ads played on the popularity of the Guinness postings and the initial ads took the line of being ‘a Guinness posting semen to life.† Although these commercials were yet another illustration of the fantastic ability Guinness has had over the old ages to cite it’s ain advertisement, the ads truly failed to optimise the potency of telecasting and SH Benson was finally replaced in 1969 by J Walter Thompson. The Thompson epoch was defined by its brassy picture taking and it’s new moving ridge of Television ads. In the early 1970ss they employed top manner lensmans to give their postings an elegant and glamourous feel that would broaden the entreaty to a female market. There was a push towards the women’s drink market. Glamorous adult females who posed with elegant Continental wheiss-beer spectacless in custodies and verbal wordplaies such as â€Å"Tall dark and have some.† A 1974 posting showed suntanned adult females on a beautiful beach with a cool refreshing deep-blue sea. She is have oning a bikini reminiscent of the one Ursula Andress wore inDr NO.The ad bore the fable â€Å"WHO SAID ‘men rarely make base on ballss at adult females with glasses.’ The theory was that adult females would tie in the glamourous images with those from manner magazines and hopefully purchase the drink. Looking back on the run it seems a small kitsch and male chauvinist and unsurprisingly it failed to hold a permanent consequence. â€Å"The series had a strong initial impact –Guinnessbecame all but a manner accoutrement for the voguish 1970ss girl – but there was no permanent transition of adult females toGuinness,and the cost of accomplishing this short term success was likely non worth it †¦There may non statistics to turn out it, but these advertizements likely had more consequence on work forces than all the old-men in waterproofs postings put together.† [ 2 ] The Television ads took the attack of study based wit doing saloon room based gags. These ads were widely liked but â€Å"while consumers claimed that they adored the advertizements, it appeared to bear small or no relation to their imbibing patterns.† [ 3 ] Gross saless ofGuinnessdeclined as gross revenues of larger at light beer began to take over the younger market. The run had lost focal point and the reins were handed to Allen Brady Marsh who claimed to set about â€Å"the most researched, exhaustively thought-out run in the history of British advertisement, † As explained in Jim Davies ‘The book of Guinness advertising’ the image of theGuinnessdrinker had changed well. â€Å"The diminution in draught beer gross revenues was practically dramatic: volume fell by 38.5 % between 1972-1981 and the profile of theGuinnessdrinker aged perceptibly. Guinness moved its history to Allen Brady Marsh, a brash immature bureau which had built a repute for its aggressive streetwise style.† [ 4 ] What they came up with was a reversal off the old â€Å"Guinness is good for† you slogan. The first â€Å"Guinnless† adverts were based around the iconic and typical but simpleGuinnessin-a-pint-glass postings. The posting work had the words â€Å"relief for the Guinnless’ in black bold sans serif font along the top of the page straight above the top tierce of a pint glass. The glass it self had the word GUINNESS written on it in a trade marked fount. The whole posting was backed onto a apparent white background. It was a simple no nonsensical image which exploited the singularity and immediately recognizable inkiness of the drink. There were besides nods back to the Gilroy postings. One hoarding posting used the same typical read lettering for the word Guinnless ; the off white background and same manus drawn pint glass and the same green and black boundary line ; the posting bore an empty pint glass and in bold black inscription that took up the left two tierces of the page read â€Å"GUINNLESS isn’t good for you.† In Barthes analysis it is the lingual message that ground tackles and relays the tensenesss between the coded and non-coded iconic message. Here nevertheless it is the lingual message that is coded, meaning and touching to old trade name individuality through a reversal of an iconic motto. Although the run succeeded in change by reversaling Guinness’s falling gross revenues it alienated as many people who liked the ads. The usage of a dual negative was raging to some. â€Å"Recall was phenomenal but non ever positive.† [ 5 ] Besides the usage of the â€Å"friend of the Guinnless† support group bore excessively much of a similarity to an alkies anon. support group, and they ads could be seen as trivialising intoxicant maltreatment. As a consequence Allen Brady marsh merely helmed the Guinness history for two old ages, the shortest term of office of any company put in charge of Guinness’s lucks. Oglivy A ; Mather went back to the simple image of the lone pint ofGuinnessand added one simple word. â€Å"GENIUS.† It was a selling masterstroke that immediately madeGuinnessa cut above the remainder. It was already typical in its expression, now the fable suggested category and edification. However unlike the production values of a Thompson photographical attention deficit disorder, this was edification through simpleness. The suggestion was that the complication was in the industry and all that the consumer had to make was bask the terminal consequence. HoweverGuinnessalready had the job of being an acquired gustatory sensation. It was all good and good to travel off from an image appealing specifically to a difficult grafting working to a younger market, but they had to prolong the gross revenues and acquire the younger market to go on imbibing. â€Å"The adult male with the Guinness† run ran from 1987-94 and by this clip advertizers had settled into the medium aided besides by the birth of MTV in 1984 and the music picture. The art of fast cutting highly short sequences to rapidly convey significance had by now been honed to a criterion that we are more familiar with today. The ads featured Rutger Hauer as â€Å"The adult male with the Guinness.† â€Å"A complex amalgam of forms, he was to resembleGuinnessboth physically ( in the fact that he was wide shouldered, dressed in black, with a smooth, light-haired caput ) and psychologically ( being robust, puzzling and deep. ) † [ 6 ] The ads themselves were intentionally abstract having Hauer in an armchair in the centre of Hyde Park claiming to be from Mars, or rolling through scenes from pictures from Van Gough and Renoir. This run was specifically targeted at the draught beer market. Although advertizers were non allowed to explicitly state that imbibing would give you a cool mystique this run implied it implicitly through the usage of abstract imagination. The ads tapped a vena of wit and machination that was running through the arm of the young person market. The popularity of the surreal had been highlighted by the success of Twin Peaks and the ads worked absolutely. As explained in Davies book â€Å"By 1991 with the run still strong, draftGuinnesshad enjoyed five old ages of consistent growing †¦ with and increase in distribution and the coming of draftGuinnessin a can.† [ 7 ] The run became a victim of it’s ain success and when Holstein pills started to run a similar run with Jeff Goldblum, it was clip for Guinness to redefine it’s individualism. Oligvy A ; Mathers swansong run would startle the connexion to the young person market that it had set up. The â€Å"not everything in black and white makes sense† run was based on an irreverent sense of wit. The postings were merely white lettering on black backgrounds with irreverent dad civilization quotes such as â€Å"88.2 % of statistics are made up on the topographic point – Vic Reeves† The font size fluctuated within a sentence doing certain words bigger than others. The ocular consequence made the words look like froth swirling at the top of a newly poured pint ofGuinness. The motto at the underside of the sheets was ever little and about appeared as an reconsideration. It was non necessary to foreground the company name as black and white colour strategy was already i ndelibly linked with the merchandise. Even though the ads were normally merely text, theylookedlike the merchandise. The Television commercials ran with in a similar vena of wit what was most singular about them though was their usage on the Internet. They were turned into screensavers and downloaded onto desktops the universe over. Peoples were actively seeking to convey advertisement into their places and workplaces. This was a testament to the quality of the run. â€Å"Like Gilroy’s work some 70 old ages earlier Oglivy A ; Mather’s â€Å"black and white† run was a powerful encapsulation of the spirit of the age†¦ the runs intentionally natural, cognizing aesthetic, together with its tangled moral labyrinth modern-day life, strung a chord media-literate mid-1990’s drinkers.† [ 8 ] The of import words to observe here are ‘media-literate’ intending the immature and the immature professionals, a far auto from the working category ‘man with the girder.’ Before traveling on to the following and current places of Guinness publicizing a little aside is in order to turn to this readdressing of a younger market. There was a general rush in involvement in all things Irish during the 1890ss. After England’s failure to measure up for the ’94 universe cup all hopes rested on the Republic of Ireland and their bravery captured the state with an improbable 1-0 triumph over Italy. Pierce Brosnan grabbed headlines in 1995 when James Bond returned as an Irishman after an about 10 twelvemonth suspension. Irish music was large in popular civilization excessively. U2 enamored themselves to the populace at big by strike harding of Brain Adams from the figure 1 topographic point on the singles chart after he had held it for 13 hebdomads in 1991. The Coors and Boyzone were really popular in the mid 1890ss at a clip when The Irish were unchallenged title-holders of Eurovision winning the competition three times out of four between 1993-96 ; and of class Michael Flatley’sRiverdancebecame the fastest selling picture of all-time in the UK market in August 1994. Although non all of these ‘cultural events’ have a great trade of ‘street cred’ it is clear that Ireland was really much in trend during this clip. Guinness were able to work with this heighten cultural consciousness to appeal to a younger market. Guinness had already laid down the foundations to appeal to a younger ; ‘cooler’ market, nevertheless there were legal jobs in coming up with a scheme that would aim this market. Issues were raised about young person imbibing in the 1890ss with the debut of alcho-pops, the cause celebre today is binge imbibing, in peculiar teenage orgy imbibing. The regulations and ordinances were tighter than anything that had come before it. â€Å"Since 1996, the intoxicant industry’s Portman Group has operated a voluntary codification of pattern modulating the selling of alcoholic drinks with peculiar mention to immature people. This covers the naming, packaging and publicity of alcoholic drinks, but non advertisement. On 1 November 2004, the Ad Standards Authority assumed duty for all advertisement criterions and consumer ailments, both broadcast and non-broadcast.† [ 9 ] The â€Å"Guinness is good for you† run was abandoned in the late 1960ss under turning force per unit area that they could offer no cogent evidence of the medicative belongingss ofGuinnessand the ethical issue of advancing an alcoholic drink as healthy when the dangers of inordinate intoxicant ingestion are all excessively clear. In short it wasn’t right promoting â€Å"Guinness for strength† when intoxicant can do dependence, bosom and liver failure and a myriad of other jobs. The current place is laid down in the British codification of advertisement pattern as: â€Å"Advertisements must non propose that intoxicant has curative qualities nor Offer it as a stimulation, ataractic, mood-changer or to hike assurance. There must be no suggestion that physical or other public presentation may be improved by intoxicant or that it might be indispensable. [ 10 ] Under the same codification advertizers are non allowed to propose that imbibing cause positive life style alterations that make you more successful, stronger, more societal or more sexually attractive. In short it must be the trade name that is promoted non a life style. However the selling schemes employed by Guinness has managed to give the trade name itself the cool mystique that entreaties to a immature and ‘trendy’ market. However the moralss here remain unelaborated at best. Although there is no publicity of life style, it may be argued that the consumer will desire to devour so that they may enjoy in its reflected glorification. It is a all right line that the advertizers must walk and one that Abbot Mead Vickers has done with all the expertness of a circus performing artist. Abbot Mead Vickers took over from Ogilvy A ; Mather in 1998. The â€Å"good things come to those who wait† run was launched in March 1998 as a natural patterned advance of the â€Å"pure Genius† run. Equally good as keeping the cool mystique of â€Å"The adult male with the Guinness campaign.† The thought was to advanceGuinnessas the â€Å"Perfect Pint† and it accompanied a preparation plan baring the same rubric. The run was about a jubilation of the pint itself and the manner it is presented to the consumer. The thoughts were based around a gimmick line that it takes 119.5 seconds to pour the perfect pint. â€Å"The clip aspect works on another degree every bit good, reflecting, as it does the Perfect Pint preparation programme. This has been ongoing for some old ages and was instituted by Guinness to guarantee that wherever a pint of Guinness is served, it is served utilizing the bipartite pour, with a tight creamy caput of between 10 and 15mm in deepness, at a temperature of between 4-7 grades. The usage of clip, and the thought of anticipating a delay, encourages drinkers to recognize that the barperson is non being decelerate in functioning the pint merely paying due attending to perfection.† [ 11 ] The high production values of ads such as â€Å"Surfer† ( a true master ) and â€Å"Swimblack† ( which seems to hold taken a cue from the Stella Artois ‘reassuringly expensive’ runs, ) were a contemplation of the high category of brewing of the beer itself. These ads besides utilized the really best endowment available. Jonathon Glazer who would travel on to direct the characteristic movies Sexy Beast and Birth directed these two ads. â€Å"Surfer† was possibly the coronating glorification of the run. Inspired by a posting dating back to the ‘Pure Genius’ run ; of surprisingly enough a surfboarder ; it was a farther show of the ability Guinness has to mention to its ain iconography. The ad was the narrative of an oldish looking surfboarder who was waiting for the perfect moving ridge. As he is surfing the moving ridge, we see white Equus caballuss galloping through the broken white Waterss of black angry moving ridges. This was an inordinately inventive usage of computing machine engineering. The ad besides featured a really memorable voice over ( â€Å"tick follows tock, follows tick, follows tock and the fat drummer hit the beat†¦here’s to you Ahab! ) The music was besides antic ; the usage of Leftfield’sPhat Planetwas inspired.All in all the production values of the ad were every bit high as any Hollywood film ( so the ad had a film tally where it looked even more impress ive, ) it besides had the feel of a music picture, which in bend made it appeal to the younger coevals. The ad was merely ‘cool’ and became an instant cult. Cult of class is ever popular with the pupils, and with the wit and genius shown in runs such as ‘Black and White’ and ‘Good things come to those who wait, ’ have enamored Guinness steadfastly into the Black Marias of pupils as both a merchandise and a trade name. Students have become a really of import demographic. St Patrick’s twenty-four hours publicities are really popular in brotherhood bars, most pupils will imbibe that excess pint or two if it means acquiring a free green wig or a Guinness branded jersey or a freshness leprechaun chapeau. Jack Daniels employ a really similar promotional technique during September when spectacless, jerseies and pocket flasks are given off to observe the birthday of Jack Daniels himself. September of class besides merely happens to bee the month that fresher start university and are acute to travel out imbibing to do new friends. Guinness besides now employs trade name embassadors within university to advance the drink. In the 1950ss it was physicians, but even now that statute law says that physicians couldn’t promote intoxicant if they wanted to, it merely wouldn’t work. The rise of the adolescent in the 1950ss started a tendency that has continued. The immature free and childless are now the demographic with the highest disposable income. Young people do non desire to take the advice of some autocratic physician ; all the merriment of young person prevarications in rebellion. This soft persuasion by equals and coevalss is now a much more effectual scheme. However with recent concerns other public wellness related to gorge imbibing and the contention over 24 licensing Torahs, advertizers are non allowed to advance mass ingestion of merchandise and must besides promote people to ‘enjoy imbibe responsibly.’ Over the old ages Guinness has amassed its ain aggregation of semiotic forms from the stylistic aesthetic of the Gilroy postings in image and in fount. The toucan, the harp, the glass, all the catchy mottos and the development of a Guinness fount to be used in print on Television and on the pint glasses themselves. In footings of Bathes coded and non-coded iconography, every clip one of these forms is used a rich tradition of advertisement is being eluded to enrich the coded message. Color is besides critical in the current advertisement runs as forms. The recent â€Å"now shipped from Dublin, † are about carbon transcripts of the old colourful Gilroy postings utilizing the same imagination and founts even with a return of the toucan. These factors all evoke the tradition of Guinness at a clip when it is being marketed as ‘trendy.’ But the word Guinness is now in green to farther extenuate Irishness, consequently green is besides used to advance gross revenues around the clip of St Patrick’s Day. The excess cold adds use a bluish graduated table to denote the cold, as opposed to the ‘Black and white† run which plays with the familiar contrast. This rich tradition and acquaintance in the iconography of Guinness is a testament to the unity of the merchandise. It is a timeless drink both due to the length of clip it has been brewed and the length of clip it takes to pour A really cagey run forGuinness excess coldfeatured authoritative Guinness ads such as â€Å"surfer, † but the high-octane action that we were anticipating is stopped as the surfboarders run in to the H2O and instantly back out once more because the H2O is excessively cold. This improbably knowing and amusing series of ads is a premier illustration of how Guinness is able to utilize its ain forms and iconography to advance new merchandises or to new markets without losing any of its trade name individuality. On page 33 in his book ‘Ad universes: Brand, media, and audiences.’ Greg Myers defines branding as â€Å"the fond regard of significances to a labeled product.† [ 12 ] He goes on to state that trade names are marketed through the four Ps Product, Place, Promotion and Price. So how has the assorted runs over the old ages shaped what we see to today as the Guinness trade name. Guinness has been marketed as a alone and alternate merchandise, the fact that it is ubiquitously topographic point through out about every saloon in the state has merely worked because the other draft beers will alter from saloon to pub. Guinness is an alternate but it is perennial option, a devoted loyalist. It has been promoted as the pick of the alternate thought through runs such as ‘man with the Guinness’ and â€Å"Black and White’ it is little premium of monetary value aids to keep a sense of exclusivity that goes along with being an alternate pick. Myers besides goes along to call a farther Four Ps which â€Å"constrain the trade name within a wider set of significances within the civilization, † and hence aid to specify the trade names place within that given civilization. These are Past, Position, Practices and Paradigm. Again lets use this to the black material. The heritage of Guinness lies in its Irishness. The image conjured by the Gilroy postings of the hardworking labourer who finishes his twenty-four hours with a pint. As the modern vernal drinkers couldn’t be farther removed from that life style, the heritage becomes defined and understood entirely through the history of its advertisement.Guinness’place is now as it ever has been as the lone stout on pat in your local saloon it is a market leader with an 88.5 % portion. It is traditional and dependable but still immature and fresh. The pattern of imbibing Guinness is one of slow and leisured enjoyment it is a gustatory sensation to be savored and straight and odds with the selling of drinks such as WKD which are meant to be ‘knocked back’ ‘downed’ or the eccentric pattern of ‘strawpeedo-ing’ ( utilizing a straw to acquire air into the bottle so it can be intoxicated faster. ) Finally the paradigm lies in the manner that the full history ofGuinnessadvertisement has been used and reused to animate significance. As exampled in the â€Å"Guinness excess cold’ telecasting commercials. What Guinness have created in the selling of their merchandise is a semiotic environment, possibly even a diegetic semiotic environment, where the forms and the iconography from over 70 old ages of much beloved advertisement have come together to make a distinguishable, unmistakable, unforgettable trade name ; that is ductile and able to be sculpted to alter with the cultural and societal clime. How precisely has this come about? What advantage has Guinness had over all other beers stouts and laagers? Although the work of SH Benson and Abbot Mead Vickers has presciently managed to reinvent the image of Guinness of the old ages and maintain it in the forthright of peoples heads, the clear advantage that the merchandise has had over other merchandises is its immediately recognizably organic structure. In a row of 20 pints of beer and laagers you would be hard pushed to state a pint of Carling from a pint of Stephen fosters or a pint of Worthington’s from a pint of John Smith’s by sight entirely ; but a pint of Guinness would stand out a stat mi. A exposure of that batting order would do a antic ad in it’s ain right. In the first few pages of ‘the Book of Guinness advertisement, ’ Jim Davies makes this point, and it is likely the factor that has kept Guinness in front of all its advertisement challengers for many old ages. â€Å"Its typical black organic structure and creamy white caput has frequently been likened to â€Å"a logo in a glass.† In his seminal treatise on advertisement psychological science,The scheme of desire( 1960 ) the American societal scientist Ernest Dichter writes, â€Å"that after all the 1000000s of dollars that [ the advertizer ] have expended in advertisement and public dealingss and selling, the existent step of his success is the creative activity of a personality and singularity for his trade name and merchandise. If he has failed to set up such a uniqueness so so the advertisement has failed.† In footings of it’s selling scheme Guinness has enjoyed a distinguishable advantage over most beers ; until the recent detonation of stout trade names on the market, it has stood rebelliously entirely, palpably different from it’s bitter stout and larger challengers, a point that its advertisement has systematically emphasized. Guinness is a true one off. † [ 13 ] Bibliography Berger, John.Wayss of Seeing,Penguin, London: 1972. Boyle, DavidAuthenticity: Trade names, Fakes, Spin and the Lust for Real Life. Branston, Gill A ; Stafford, Roy.The Media Student’s Book.Routledge, 2003. Davies, Jim.The Book of Guinness advertisement, Guinness publication, 1998. Dyer, Gillian.Ad as Communication. London, Routledge, 1988. Evans, J. A ; Hall, S.Ocular Culture: A ReaderSage, London, 1999. Goffman, Erving.Gender Ads. Macmillan, 1979. Goldman, Robert.Reading Ads Socially, Routledge, 1992. Jobling, Paul A ; Crowley David.Graphic Design ; Reproduction A ; Representation Since 1880, Manchester University Press, 1996. Klein, Naomi.No Logo, Flamingo, 2001. Lury, Celia.Trade names: The Logos of the Global Economy, Routledge, 2004. Myers, Greg.Ad Universes: Trade names, Media, Audiences,Arnold, 1998. Ollins, Wally.On Brand,Thames A ; Hudson, London, 2003. Pavitt, Jane.Brand New,London: V A ; A Publications, 2000. Sibley, Brain.The book of Guinness advertisement, Guinness books, Norfolk, 1985. IAS fact sheet – Alcohol and Advertising Web sites All accessed 2/11/2005 www.bbc.co.uk www.guinness.com www.stellartois.co.uk hypertext transfer protocol: //www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/byday? day=14 A ; month=5 A ; year=1998 Page 1 of 13